Young Muslims in Europe grapple with identity and belonging amid Balkan heritage

A new study published in the Journal of Intercultural Studies sheds light on the complex identities of young Muslims born to families displaced across Europe by the Yugoslav wars, revealing how they navigate belonging in the face of migration, Islamophobia, and their Balkan heritage.

Titled “‘On Being Young, Muslim, and from the Balkans: Perspectives of Belonging in Belgium and Germany,” the research, while primarily focused on identity construction, draws parallels to the experiences of post-migrant generations in Antwerp and Dortmund, where young Muslims born to Bosnian and Albanian families confront a persistent sense of “atopicality” – a disconnection from both their birthplace and their parents’ homeland.

The disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s triggered a mass exodus of approximately four million people, many of whom sought refuge across Europe and beyond. The study notes, “Muslims from war-torn Yugoslavia were associated with the long-established Turkish diaspora and seen through the imaginary lens of ‘the Orient’”. This mischaracterisation, coupled with Europe’s tendency to view Balkan Muslims as “holders of an exceptional Islam”, has left their descendants caught between cultural identities, often labelled as migrants despite being born in Europe.

Conducted between March and June 2023, the research focuses on two small communities: 13 young Muslims of Bosnian descent in Antwerp, Belgium, and 11 of Albanian origin in Dortmund, Germany. Through in-depth interviews and participant observation in multicultural neighborhoods like Deurne and Borgerhout in Antwerp and Innenstadt-Nord in Dortmund, the study explores how these individuals nurture their sense of belonging amid family heritage, religious identity, and societal prejudice.

“The main goal of this study is twofold: first, it investigates how young Muslims born to former Yugoslavian Muslim families nurture their sense of belonging vis-à-vis their family migration heritage; second, it delves into the extent to which this post-migrant generation remains exposed… to a condition of atopicality”.

In Antwerp, Bosnian Muslims express a strong connection to their city, with one respondent proudly claiming, “I have lived my entire life in Antwerp and cannot imagine my future far from it.” Yet, they also grapple with a “semi-diasporic situation,” feeling like “eternal newcomers” despite being Belgian citizens.

Their parents’ experiences of war and displacement shape their identity, with many perceiving their Muslimness as a direct legacy of the genocidal violence endured in Yugoslavia. A female respondent reflected on her mother’s stories of pre-war Bosnia, noting, “Muslims were the majority before the war… [Islamophobia] is very felt, [and] what is unthinkable to many, it is instead understood as possible by us.”

In Dortmund, young Muslims of Albanian descent face similar challenges. The study found that they “enact different ways of belonging than older generations,” often navigating a “strategic cosmopolitanism” to reconcile their German, Albanian, and Muslim identities.

However, Islamophobia and racialisation create a sense of alienation. One respondent recounted a friend’s surprise upon learning of his faith: “You were born here, but your family is originally from Macedonia, Albanian and Muslim. Wait, where are you really from?” This question encapsulates the persistent “migratisation” – the ascription of migrant status to those born in Europe.

Gender dynamics further complicate these experiences. In Dortmund, a female respondent tearfully described her father’s refusal to let her veil, citing “common, patriarchal, double standards inside Albanian families” that prioritise assimilation over religious expression. This tension underscores how “Albanian Muslim masculinities are subordinate to European Christian or secular masculinities” (Ferizaj, 2023), with women often bearing the brunt of gendered Islamophobia. In contrast, female respondents in both cities showed solidarity with other Muslim women, forming transnational networks to counter exclusion.

The study highlights how urban settings shape these identities. In Antwerp’s multicultural districts, Bosnian Muslims find cultural affinity with Turkish communities, though they prefer familial settings for religious practices due to lingering war traumas. In Dortmund’s Innenstadt-Nord, described as a “safer and more liveable space” compared to areas like Dorstfeld, young Muslims build friendships that act as a “safety net” against discrimination.

However, both groups face “nano-racism” – subtle, everyday acts of prejudice that reinforce their outsider status.

The research also critiques Europe’s “colonial amnesia,” which marginalises Balkan Muslims as “un-Europeans” despite their long presence on the continent (El-Tayeb, 2020). This is exacerbated by the EU’s securitisation discourse, particularly in Muslim-majority Balkan countries like Bosnia and Kosovo, where sovereignty remains fragmented.

The study argues that “whiteness” plays a pivotal role, with respondents leveraging their “light skin” and European appearance to avoid discrimination, yet still facing barriers due to their Muslim identity.

For these young Muslims, belonging remains a “project-in-the-making”. They juggle family traditions, religious practices, and societal expectations, often feeling trapped in a liminal space between their birthplace and their parents’ homeland.

As one respondent noted, “I am Albanian, therefore more European than other Muslim friends of mine,” reflecting an internalized hierarchy that positions Balkan Muslims as “good European Muslims” against “bad Arab Muslims”.

Yet, female respondents often reject such binaries, fostering solidarity with Muslims from diverse backgrounds to challenge Islamophobia.

The study concludes that “belonging cannot be solely resolved in the democratic idea of citizenship” (Marramao, 2012). Despite being citizens, these young Muslims face persistent exclusion, shaped by Europe’s racialized and migratised frameworks. Their experiences underscore the need for further research into how post-migrant generations navigate identity in Northwest and Southeast Europe, particularly as the legacies of war, migration, and Islamophobia continue to reverberate.

For the full study, visit: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07256868.2025.2531768

Caption: Illustrative photo. A Muslim woman is seen at the ballot booth before casting her vote during Belgium’s Local elections for city council and Province at the city hall in Antwerp, Belgium. EPA/OLIVIER HOSLET