Europe wakes up: conscription is back on the table

Europe’s deteriorating security environment, driven above all by Russia’s aggression and the risk of a wider conflict on the continent, is prompting governments to rethink one of the most politically sensitive pillars of national defence: military service. While several countries never abolished conscription, others are gradually bringing it back – either fully or in modified voluntary formats, arguing that resilient armed forces require broader societal participation.

The result is a sharply diverging map of military service models across Europe.

Countries that retain full or partial conscription

Denmark extended its conscription term last year from four to eleven months and, as of 1 July, made it mandatory for women. Young Danes are selected by lottery according to the armed forces’ needs.

Finland requires male conscripts to serve 6, 9 or 12 months depending on speciality and rank. After completing their service, they enter the reserve and remain liable for mobilisation until the age of 50 or 60 – a limit the government is considering raising to 65. Service for women is voluntary.

Norway introduced gender-neutral conscription in 2013, with a 12-month term. Only about 15% of each cohort is selected, based on qualifications, motivation and other criteria.

In Estonia, men serve 8 to 11 months, typically within their home regions so they can join the same units later as reservists. Women may volunteer.

Greece maintains compulsory service for men aged 18 and over, lasting nine to twelve months. Since March, women may join voluntarily.

In Cyprus, men serve a mandatory 14-month term, and in April lawmakers extended voluntary service opportunities to women.

Austria and Switzerland – both militarily neutral – also maintain compulsory service for men, lasting six and nine months respectively. Service remains voluntary for women.

Countries that have reinstated conscription

Lithuania was the first to bring back mandatory service for men in 2015, after ending it in 2008. Conscripts are selected by lottery for nine-month service, while women may join voluntarily. Afterward, they remain in the reserve for ten years, rising to fifteen from 2026.

Sweden restored conscription in 2017 after a seven-year pause. The system is gender-neutral, with terms ranging from 9 to 15 months. While only a few thousand are called up annually, all young Swedes may be mobilised in a crisis under the country’s “total defence” model.

Latvia reinstated an 11-month mandatory service for men in 2023, voluntary for women. Young Latvians can alternatively commit to five years in the National Guard, undergoing annual training.

At the end of October, Croatia voted to reinstate compulsory service for men starting next year, having abolished it in 2008 shortly before joining NATO.

Croatia becomes fourth NATO country with compulsory military service

Countries turning to voluntary models

France will launch a new 10-month voluntary programme next summer, primarily targeting 18-19-year-olds. Mandatory conscription was abolished in 1997. The government aims for 3,000 volunteers in the first year, rising to 10,000 by 2030.

Several states that abolished conscription between the 1990s and mid-2000s – Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Czechia, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Bulgaria, are now experimenting with voluntary military training. The Netherlands restarted such programmes in 2023.

Belgium plans to introduce a 12-month voluntary service for men and women in 2026, with a target of 1,000 volunteers by 2028. Romania aims to launch a four-month voluntary scheme next year. Poland, which ended conscription in 2009, has created a one-month basic voluntary training followed by an optional 11-month specialisation.

Germany suspended compulsory service in 2011, but the governing coalition has agreed on a voluntary model designed to recruit around 20,000 soldiers by 2026. The draft law is expected to be voted on in December.

In the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Keir Starmer has formally abandoned his predecessor’s proposal to reintroduce national service, which was abolished in 1960.

France’s renewed push: “Prepare, don’t fear”

French President Emmanuel Macron has placed youth engagement at the centre of his new defence vision. Announcing the 10-month voluntary “national service”, which he described as “entirely military” and conducted strictly on French territory, Macron said that 3,000 young people would be enrolled in the summer of 2026, with a gradual expansion to 10,000 by 2030 and 50,000 annually by 2035.

Against the backdrop of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, Macron argued that “the only way to avoid danger is to prepare for it”, not to feed public anxiety. Twelve European countries have kept or restored compulsory service, he noted, while six others are now establishing voluntary programmes in response to the deteriorating strategic environment.

Visiting the 27th Mountain Infantry Brigade in the Alps, Macron warned that in a world where “force prevails over law”, France cannot afford “fear, panic, unpreparedness or division”. Volunteers will receive a minimum monthly allowance of €800, along with accommodation, meals and equipment.

As Europe recalibrates its defence posture, the debate over conscription, once thought settled – is returning to the political mainstream. The choices governments make now will shape the continent’s capacity to deter future threats and withstand prolonged crises.

Caption: French President Emmanuel Macron delievers a speech to unveil a new national military service plan at the military base in Varces, French Alps, 27 November 2025. EPA/THOMAS PADILLA MAXPPP OUT